by Deniz Aydiner

In the ancient world, women’s status was generally equivalent to slaves. Despite changes across societies and periods, women remained trapped in their lowly status; only a handful of figures transcended the spirit of their times to become visible on the stage of history. The life of Arsinoe II best reflects how dire the circumstances of a woman in the ancient world could be, how she could be bought and sold like a commodity, and how she could only come to prominence through her husband and then her son. The only difference between her and many other female figures is that, despite a life marked by exile, she became a highly successful and influential person by the end of her life and carefully carved her name into women’s history.

Arsinoe II Philadelphos  (the Sister-Lover) was present in many regions during the Wars of the Diadochi (323-281 BC)¹and rose successfully amid the wars and conflicts. In particular, the relationships between the Diadochi also included marriages.

Arsinoe II was born in Egypt around 316 BC as the daughter of Ptolemy I Soteros (the Saviour) and his wife Berenice I. Like many of the wives and children in the Egyptian court, we know little about Arsinoe’s early life. We only know that she came from an aristocratic family, as both her mother and father were of Macedonian nobility.

Following the Battle of Ipsos in 301 BC, the wars between the Diadochi had largely calmed down, and Antigonos Monophtalmos (the One-Eyed), who had come to the fore with his expansionism, had died. Nevertheless, the Hellenistic kings generally demonstrated their alliances, which were based on a fine line between them, through marriages. Around 300 BC, Arsinoe was married to Lysimachus as a “ binding contract” of Ptolemy Soter’s alliance.

As the Wife of Lysimachus

It is known that Lysimachus had many wives and children, just as he did in the Egyptian court. Despite the large number of women and children in Lysimachus’ court, his successor was quite clearly determined. Nicaea, daughter of Antipater, who had served as regent in Macedonia, and sister of Cassander, who was attempting to establish his rule in the same region, had been married to Lysimachus for a long time, and their son Agathocles was indisputably seen as Lysimachus’ successor. Indeed, in 286 BC, Agathocles’ defense of the kingdom against the attacks of Demetrius Poliorketes (the Besieger) further strengthened his position.

Agathocles’ dominant position and undisputed succession would have led to the murder or removal of Arsinoe’s children when he came to power. If we proceed according to the general consensus found in the literature, it is thought that as a result of these circumstances, Arsinoe tried to persuade Lysimachus in defense of her own children and particularly antagonized him against Agathocles². It is also conceivable that Lysimachus, who was around 70 years old at the time, feared that such a powerful son would overthrow him. However, we do not know whether Agathocles made any attempt to rebel.

In this tense environment, the heir Agathokles was executed. This situation led to a series of complications. Agathocles’ widow Lysandra sought refuge in the Seleucid kingdom and provoked Seleucus Nicator against Lysimachus; moreover, considering that the Seleucid kingdom would also benefit from such a war, Seleucus Nicator (the Victorious) used this situation as a pretext and declared war on Lysimachus.

The Battle of Corupedium (281 BC), which marked the confrontation between Seleucus Nicator and Lysimachus, resulted in Seleucus’ victory and Lysimachus’ death (Map 1). Ptolemy Keraunos (the Thunderbolt), believed to be Arsinoe’s stepbrother, emerged onto the historical stage during this critical period. Advancing on the capital Lysimachia, Seleucus was assassinated by Ptolemy Keraunos, who is thought to have been the second-in-line heir to the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Because of this assassination, Pausanias (10.19.7) gave himself the epithet Keraunos (Thunderbolt). Ptolemy Keraunos advanced on Lysimachia and took command of Seleucus’ army; Keraunos’ previous service as an officer in both armies facilitated this.³

As the Wife of Ptolemy Keraunos

The significance of Keraunos in our case study of Arsinoe is quite political. Following the deaths of Lysimachus, Agathocles, and Seleucus, Keraunos presented himself as Lysimachus’ revenger and ascended the throne⁴; however, Lysimachus’ children by Arsinoe, Kassandreia, posed a threat to his throne by seeking to take control. To eliminate this threat, Keraunos first married Arsinoe and then wasted no time in killing her two youngest children, Lysimachos and Philippos. After the murder of all her children except her eldest son Ptolemy, Arsinoe was also banned from Cassandreia, where she wielded considerable power (Iust. 24.2.).

 The period between 281 and 279 BC appears somewhat unclear in terms of sources. Although Arsinoe’s exact whereabouts are unknown, it would not be wrong to assume that she was in exile in some area during the struggle between Antigonus Gonatas and Ptolemy Keraunos for Macedonian supremacy. It is known that Arsinoe’s eldest son, Ptolemy, also took part in this struggle; however, this move resulted in his death in his mother Arsinoe’s arms, as described by Justinus (24.3.). The image of Keraunos, generally shaped by Justinus’ narrative, contains contradictory statements within itself. Despite Justin’s contradiction in describing Keraunos as both a good avenger and a figure who saw Arsinoe as dangerous, it is known that Keraunos had a coin with the Arsinoe motif (Figures 1-2).⁵

Keraunos was killed in 279 BC during the Galatian invasions. It is known that Arsinoe was on the island of Samothrace at this time; however, the dating of the sacred area she had built in the Rotunda here has not been confirmed.⁶ From this perspective, it is also possible that she was here from the beginning of her exile.

Return to Egypt

 The fact that Arsinoe, upon returning to Egypt, did not attempt such a return until the very last moment leads us to believe that she thought this return would not be positive. Indeed, it is quite difficult for a queen whose ties to her husband have been severed to rise again in the ancient world. The fundamental idea of Arsinoe’s era was that women’s bonds to the throne were considered equivalent to their bonds to their husbands.⁷

 The king of Egypt at that time was  Ptolemy II, the son of Ptolemy Soteros and Berenice I, the full brother of Arsione, and later known as Ptolemy Philadelphos (the Sister-Lover). Ptolemy II’s wife was Arsinoe I, daughter of Lysimachus. Arsinoe I’s life story is quite fragmented; she was probably married to Ptolemy II for political alliance, but with the death of Lysimachus in 281 BC, this alliance lost its purpose. Although Arsinoe I was exiled despite being the mother of Ptolemy II’s children, this exile was considered “an order of the king”; t is strongly argued that Arsinoe II had an influence on this exile⁸. However, Carney argues that there was a specific time period between Arsinoe II’s return to Egypt and Arsinoe I’s exile, suggesting that the exile may not have been connected to Arsinoe II.⁹

At this point, a clash of traditions becomes apparent: sibling marriage. Both Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II were children of Ptolemy Soter and Berenice I. While the marriage bond between two siblings was seen in Egyptian traditions, it was considered quite antithetical to Macedonian and Greek traditions.¹⁰ From this perspective, it can be seen that Egyptian culture was adopted and this region was defined as an essential element.

The marriage of two siblings did not create a problem in Egyptian traditions, but due to their status as important figures in the belief system, it led to the development of the Osiris-Isis cult of brother-sister spouses.¹¹ In particular, Arsinoe II’s connection with the cult of Isis is a direct reflection of this marriage (Figures 3-4).

Ptolemy Soteros and Berenice I were deified as Theoi Soteres (the Saviour Gods) immediately after Berenice I’s death (c. 279 BC). This deification by Ptolemy II was later combined and elevated with the cult of Theoi Adelphoi (Sibling Gods), in which Arsinoe II and Ptolemy II were also deified (Figures 5-6). Arsinoe II’s sacred status was also combined with the cult of Aphrodite. A sacred site was dedicated in the city of Zephiron (Egypt) and hymns were dedicated to the Arsinoe-Aphrodite Cult and the title “Protector of Sailors.”¹²

During her time in power, she shared almost identical titles with the Egyptian pharaoh. The fact that Arsinoe II bore the title “Ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt” in particular reflects her power.¹³ During this period, she also maintained relations with the Hellenistic world; indeed, it is thought that her chariot won the race at the Olympic Games in 272 BC.¹⁴

 Arsinoe II Philadelphos, who is thought to have died in 270 BC, is one of the most exciting figures of antiquity. Her life, which began in the Egyptian court, saw many battles, many reigns, and many defeats before returning to the Egyptian court. As a human being, Arsinoe II, who was born a woman and thus held a low status according to the conditions of the time, died as “Arsinoe, Protector of Sailors, Aphrodite, Goddess Isis” (Figure below).

About the Author

Deniz Aydines studied History at Marmara University in Istanbul and completed a master’s degree specialising in the historiography of Alexander the Great. His research focuses on ancient historiography and the political and cultural history of the Hellenistic period. He is currently pursuing a PhD at the same university, with ongoing work in historiography and the epigraphy of Asia Minor.

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